MinuteEarth

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• Cladistics: A method of recreating evolutionary trees based on evidence about relationships.
• Etymology: The study of the origin of words and how they have changed throughout history.
• Convergent Evolution: A process whereby different species evolve similar traits in order to adapt to similar environments.
• Polyphyly: A group containing members with multiple ancestral sources.
• Homoplasy: A trait shared by a group of species that is not shared in their common ancestor.
• False Cognates: Pairs of words with similar sounds and meanings but unrelated etymologies.

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• Food Web: the feeding relationships between animals that determine how energy and nutrients are spread throughout an ecosystem.
• Trophic Level: a hierarchical level in an ecosystem made up of organisms that share the same function in the food web.
• Apex predator: the animals at the top trophic level that feed on animals and organisms below them.
• Mesopredator: a member of a mid-ranking trophic level that preys on animals and organisms in lower trophic levels and occasionally gets eat by apex predators.
• Mesopredator Release: an ecological phenomenon in which mesopredators rapidly grow in population once apex predators are removed from an ecosystem.
• Trophic Cascade: a series of dramatic changes in an ecosystem often triggered by mesopredator release.

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• Mortality plateau: the leveling out of the mortality rate that is observed at late ages in various species

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• Mast Year: A year in which all the plants of a particular species in a region ramp up their seed production.
• Predator Satiation Hypothesis: The hypothesis that mast seeding is a strategy plants use for controlling the population of squirrels and other seed-eating animals.

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• Sunshower: A meteorological phenomenon in which the sunshines while rain is falling.
• Idiom: A group of words whose meaning is not readily understandable by defining the individual words.
• Anthropomorphism: The attribution of human characteristics to an animal or god or object.
• Linguistic Anthropology: A field of study into how language shapes communication around the world.

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• Mammal: Endothermic vertebrates that nurse their young.
• Lactation: The secretion of milk by the mammary glands.
• Mammary Gland: A cluster of alveoli and ducts that secretes milk.
• Mammary Alveoli: The tiny sacs that are the site of milk production and storage in the mammary gland.
• Oxytocin: A hormone released by the pituitary gland that - among other things - causes the milk ejection reflex during nursing.
• Holstein: A large black and white cow known for the large quantities of milk it yields.

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• Polymer: A substance whose molecular structure consists of large numbers of similar units covalently bonded together
• Covalent bond: A strong type of bond in which adjacent atoms share electrons.
• Backbone chain: A long series of covalently bonded atoms that create the continuous chain of the molecule.
• Bioplastic: A type of plastic, usually biodegradable, made from biological substances.
• Scission: The breakage of a backbone chain at the bond level.
• Microbial biodegradation: The use of microbes to break molecules into smaller and less harmful forms.

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• Food stock: the total amount of any particular food existing at any point in time
• Strategic reserve: food intentionally kept on reserve to be sold when supplies otherwise become low
• Stock to use ratio: the amount of stock of any given food at any point in time as a fraction of the total annual consumption of the commodity

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• Personal Genetic Analysis: Direct-to-consumer DNA testing, usually through mail-in saliva samples.
• Single Nucleotide Polymorphism: A variation at a single spot on the genome that is present in some part of the population.
• Genotyping chip: A microarray that allows genetic testing companies to test a DNA sample for hundreds of thousands of single nucleotide polymorphisms.
• Health Care Fraud: A crime that usually involves misrepresenting medical information in order to make money.
• Targeted Advertising: The practice of placing ads based on consumer demographics or behavior.
• Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act: A 2008 American law that prohibits health insurers and employers from using genetic information when making coverage or hiring decisions.

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• Electroshock therapy: the original name for treating severe depression with a series of brief electrical shocks to the brain
• Electroconvulsive therapy: the current name for electroshock therapy
• Deep brain stimulation: a treatment for advanced Parkinson’s that uses pulsed electrical signals to targeted brain regions

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• Annual: a plant that typically lives for a year or less
• Biennial: a plant that typically lives for two years
• Perennial: a plant that typically lives for multiple years

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• Direct transmission: occurs when a pathogen is transmitted to a new host by physical or close contact
• Virulence: the degree of damage a pathogen causes its host

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• Migration: The seasonal movement of a population of animals from one area to another.
• Prevailing winds: Winds in a particular area that blow in a particular direction.
• Thermal: An upward current of warm air.
• Lift: A force that counteracts the weight of an object and holds it in the air.
• Flyway: A route regularly used by lots of migrating birds.

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• Act of God: A natural disaster that is outside of human influence or control, such that no one will be held responsible for the resulting damages.
• Reasonable precautions: The ordinary or usual precautions that a person would take to prevent damage from a natural disaster.

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• Domesticated animal: a species of animal bred by humans over generations to become nonreactive and gain characteristics suitable for life as a farm animal or pet
• Tame animal: an individual animal raised in a way that it has become less dangerous and frightened of people
• Feral animal: an animal that escapes from captivity or domestication (& regains some similar & some different characteristics compared to its pre-domesticated state)
• "Fight or flight": an instinctive physiological response to a threatening situation that readies a creature to either to resist forcibly or escape
• Limbic system: the brain’s “panic button” - a system of nerves and networks near the bottom of the cortex that controls basic emotions (e.g. fear, pleasure, anger) and drives (e.g. hunger, sex, dominance)
• Telencephalon: the most developed and anterior part of the forebrain, consisting chiefly of the cerebral hemispheres, and the brain region that shrinks most in domesticated animals
• Domestication: a sustained multigenerational, mutualistic relationship in which one species (e.g. humans) assumes a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another species (e.g. cows) in order to secure a more predictable supply of a resource of interest (e.g. milk/meat/traction), and through which the domesticated organisms gain advantage over individuals that remain outside this relationship (e.g. aurochs, which went extinct), thereby benefitting and often increasing the fitness of both species involved

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• Spiracles: External respiratory openings on insects
• Carboniferous Period: The time period from 359-299 million years ago when the Earth’s oxygen levels increased rapidly.
• Square-Cube Law: A mathematical principle that describes the relationship between area and volume.
• Buoyancy: An upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object.
• Phytoplankton: Microscopic plants eaten by krill and other zooplankton.
• Baleen: A filter-feeding system inside the mouth of some whales.

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• Sex chromosome: A chromosome involved in determining the sex of an individual.
• Cloaca: A posterior orifice that serves as the only exit for the gastrointestinal, urinary and genital tracts.
• Mutation: An alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene.
• Sexually-selected Trait: A trait based on a mutation that confers a reproductive advantage.
• BMP4: A protein whose presence halts the growth of bird penises in the egg.

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• Bioprospecting: the systematic search for and development of new sources of chemical compounds, genes, micro-organisms, macro-organisms, and other valuable products from nature.

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• Pseudopenis: a structure that resembles a penis but is developmentally (and functionally) different
• Masculinization: the process by which female genitalia is made to appear more like male genitalia

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• Annual plant: living for a year or less, perpetuating itself by seed
• Perennial plant: living for several years
• Polyculture: the simultaneous cultivation or exploitation of several crops or kinds of animals
• Natural systems agriculture: cropping systems based on processes found in nature
• Agroforestry: land use management that combines the cultivation of trees/shrubs with crops/pasture to create more productive and sustainable land-use systems
• Alley cropping: planting agricultural crops between rows of trees or shrubs

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• Moon: a natural satellite of a satellite of a star.
• Satellite: A celestial body orbiting a larger celestial body.
• Orbit: The path followed by one object revolving around another object under the influence of gravity.
• Barycenter: The center of mass that two or more bodies orbit around.
• Binary System: A system in which two similarly sized object orbit the same barycenter.
• Hydrostatic equilibrium: Roundness that occurs when gravity is balanced by a pressure gradient force.

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• Inverted relief: a topographic feature, such as an old riverbed, that has reversed its elevation relative to other features.
• Duricrust: a hard mineral crust formed at or near the surface of soil in semiarid regions by the evaporation of groundwater.
• Geomorphology: the study of the physical features of the surface of the earth and their relation to its geological structures.
• Exhumed paleochannel: a remnant of an inactive river or stream channel that has been either filled or buried by younger sediment, and then subsequently uncovered by erosion.
• Erosion: the action of surface processes, including wind and water, that move dirt and rock from their original location to some other place.
• Capillary action: the tendency of a liquid in a capillary tube or absorbent material to rise or fall as a result of surface tension.
• Mineral precipitation: when dissolved compounds in a solution bond together to form a solid (a simple example is how dissolved sodium and chloride ions come together to form salt as water evaporates)

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• Solar window: a window that functions like an ordinary window but also generates power like a solar panel
• Nanoparticle (also called nanopowder or nanocluster or nanocrystal): a microscopic particle with at least one dimension less than 100 nm. These tiny objects often have characteristics that differ from larger versions of the same material.
• Quantum dots (QD): tiny nanoparticles of some kind of semiconducting material, only several nanometers in size, so small that their optical and electronic properties differ from those of larger particles. The QDs embedded in solar windows can absorb radiation largely in short wavelengths and re-emit in longer wavelengths; useful for capturing solar energy and successfully transferring it to the solar cells on the edges of the pane.
• Total internal reflection: a phenomenon in which a wave hits a medium boundary at such an angle that it doesn't pass through to the other side

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• Sex role reversed species: a species in which males and females exhibit roles other than what might be expected based on other aspects of their biology and mating systems

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• Invasive species: A non-native species that causes harm to the ecosystem.
• Biome: A large, naturally occurring community of flora and fauna.
• Duff layer: The moderately to highly decomposed organic material between the leaf litter and the soil.
• Seedling: A young plant less than one meter high.
• Sapling: A young tree that’s bigger than a seedling.
• Graminoids: Herbaceous plants and grasses.
• Coevolution: The process that occurs when two closely associated species influence each other’s evolutionary paths.
• Savanna: A grassy plain with scattered tree coverage.

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• Asteroid: A rocky body smaller than a planet that is orbiting the sun.
• Meteoroid: A smaller rocky body moving in the solar system.
• Meteor: A meteoroid that has entered the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Meteorite: A meteor that hits the Earth.
• Orbital resonance: A force that occurs when orbiting bodies exert a regular, periodic gravitational influence on each other, because of the length of their relative orbits.
• Kirkwood Gap: A dip in the distribution of main belt asteroids that correspond to the locations of orbital resonances with Jupiter.

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• Infrasound: sound waves too low in frequency for humans to hear. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 0.02 to 4Hz
• Hydroacoustic: having to do with underwater sounds. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 1-100 Hz
• Seismic: oscillation waves in the earth, often caused by earthquakes or other tectonic activity. The CTBTO stations detect frequencies of 0.02-16 Hz

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• Tannin: a yellow or brownish chemical present in some plant tissues, used in leather production and ink manufacture, and a contributor to the sensation of astringency
• Astringency: the sensation caused by the contraction of body tissues due to tannins, often called “mouthfeel” Polyphenol: a chemical compound containing more than one phenolic hydroxyl group, of which tannins are a major group Phenolic: a chemical compound with a hydroxyl group (oxygen & hydrogen) linked directly to a benzene ring

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• Mullerian mimicry: a type of mimicry in which two or more animals with defenses develop similar appearances as a shared protective device
• Batesian mimicry: a type of mimicry in which an animal with no defenses is protected by its resemblance to an animal capable of defense

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• Food: a nutritious substance we eat or drink to maintain life and growth
• Domestication: a multi-generational process in which one group of organisms manages the reproduction and care of, and changes, another type of organism, typically to secure a more predictable supply of resources (e.g. humans with food crops and animals)
• Centers of origin: the locations where humans domesticated a lot of crops and animals for food, often where lots of wild relatives lived
• Centers of diversity: a more recent concept recognizing that high concentrations of food plant and animal varieties and related wild species aren’t always located where the plants and animals were initially domesticated

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• Virga: an observable shaft of precipitation falling from a cloud that evaporates before reaching the ground
• Rainfall interception: The fraction of rainfall that falls on leaves, branches and trunks of trees and evaporates before dripping to the ground.

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• Glycolysis: The process by which glycogen is broken down into energy.
• Anaerobic metabolism: The creation of energy through the combustion of carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen.
• Aerobic metabolism: The creation of energy through the breakdown of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
• ATP: The principal molecule for storing and transferring energy in cells.
• Baseline Vital Signs: A subject’s temperature, pulse, respiration, blood pressure, pain, and pulse oximetry.

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• Fiber: a threadlike structure forming part of the muscular, nervous, connective, or other tissue in the human or animal body
• Felting: the process by which wool or another textile can be agitated, often along with moisture or heat, to cause the fibers to migrate amongst themselves and mat together into a dense smooth surface
• Ratchet: a device consisting of a bar or wheel with a set of angled teeth that allow motion in one direction only
• Wool: soft curly or wavy hair forming the coat of a sheep or similar animal, especially when cut off the animal & prepared for use in making cloth or yarn
• Mammal: a warm-blooded, bony, & hairy/furry animal, the females of which give birth to live young and nurse them with milk

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• Enantiomers: Molecules that are mirror images of each other.
• Chirality: A geometric property that makes a molecule non-superimposable on its mirror image.
• Methamphetamine: A central nervous system stimulant.
• Levmetamfetamine: The new name for the left-handed version of methamphetamine, which acts as a vasoconstrictor.
• Carvone: A terpenoid found in many essential oils.

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• Puma: The big cat with the largest home range.
• Felix silvestris: The wildcat that is the direct ancestor to all modern house cats.
• Bastet: Egyptian cat goddess.
• Pseudaelurus: A prehistoric cat that is the common ancestor to all modern felines.

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• Systema Naturae: A 1735 book by Carl Linnaeus that outlined his hierarchical classification of animals.
• Plagiuri: an early,now disused, biological subclassification of fish used by Linnaeus that also included dolphins and whales.
• Anthropomorpha: a defunct taxon established by Linnaeus for genera Homo (humans), Simia (monkeys and apes in general) and Bradypus (sloths).
• Cladogram: A branching diagram showing the evolutionary relationship between species.
• Dimetrodon: An extinct carnivorous synapsid related to early mammals.
• Plesiosaur: An extinct marine reptile with a long neck related to modern snakes.

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• Collective Noun: A noun that denotes a group of individuals.
• Terms of Venery: Collective nouns specific to certain groups of animals.
• Clowder: A term for a group of cats that means roughly, huddle, and comes from the same root as clot.

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• Sperm Whale: (Physeter macrocephalus) The largest toothed-whale, found in oceans all around the world, and likely the only whale besides the Pygmy Sperm Whale to produce ambergris.
• Cephalopod: An active predatory mollusk like an octopus or a squid.
• Cetacean: A marine mammal like a porpoise, dolphin or whale.
• Colon: The part of the large intestine that goes from the cecum to the rectum.
• Rectum: The last part of the intestine that ends in the anus.
• Eau de toilette: A dilute form of perfume

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• Ophidiophobia: The abnormal fear of snakes
• Lateral Undulation: Waves of lateral bending through the body that propel the snake forward.
• Trichromatic Vision: Three color receptors in the eye that allow the animal to see a wider spectrum of colors.
• Electroencephalogram: A non-invasive method of measuring electrical activity in the brain.

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• Evolutionary Mechanisms: Forces that change the frequency of genes in populations.
• Natural Selection: The process whereby traits that make animals more likely to survive and reproduce take hold in a population.
• Vestigiality: The process by which a genetically-determined structure loses some or all of its functionality.
• Genetic Drift: A change in the frequency of an allele due to random sampling.

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• Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen
• Hemoglobin also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb, is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of all vertebrates as well as the tissues of some invertebrates.
• Bilirubin is a yellow compound that occurs in the normal catabolic pathway that breaks down heme in vertebrates.
• Urobilinogen is a colourless by-product of bilirubin reduction. It is formed in the intestines by bacterial action on bilirubin. About half of the urobilinogen formed is reabsorbed and taken up via the portal vein to the liver, enters circulation and is excreted by the kidney.
• Urobilin or urochrome is the chemical primarily responsible for the yellow color of urine.
• Stercobilin is the chemical responsible for the brown color of human feces.

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• Organ transplantation - surgically transferring an organ from one person into another.
• Xenotransplantation - transplanting organs between members of different species.
• Transplant rejection - when the organ recipient’s immune system destroys transplanted tissue.
• Pluripotent stem cells - embryonic cells that can give rise to all the different types of cells that make up the body.
• CRISPR - a genome editing tool that allows scientists to modify genes in living cells.

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• Reindeer - the smaller, (semi-)domesticated version/subspecies of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)
• Caribou - the wild, north American subspecies of Rangifer tarandus (Rangifer tarandus granti and others).
• Wild reindeer - the wild, European/Asian subspecies of Rangifer tarandus.
• Herding - bringing animals together into a group, maintaining the group, and moving the group from place to place
• Rain-on-snow event - exactly what it sounds like! Rain that falls on snow, freezes into a thick layer of impenetrable ice over pastures, and causes mass starvation of reindeer (or caribou).

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• Foraminifera: a class of single-celled marine organisms – protists, not animals – that live either near the surface ("planktonic foraminifera") or on the seafloor ("benthic foraminifera"). Called forams for short.
• Climate proxy: something that tells us what the climate was like in the past, such as data from the thickness of tree rings, the composition of gases trapped in ancient ice, historical human records of annual bloom times (eg the long-recorded bloom dates of cherry trees in Kyoto, Japan), or the ratios of certain stable isotopes found in shells, corals, or other biogenic substances
• Oxygen-18: a stable isotope of oxygen that contains 8 protons and 10 neutrons, rather than the 8 protons and 8 neutrons of "regular" oxygen (oxygen-16). The ratio of oxygen-18 to oxygen-16 in seawater (and sea shells) can be used as a proxy for the global average temperature
• Ice sheet: a permanent layer of ice covering land, as found in polar regions (and as distinguished from sea ice, like the stuff that floats at the north pole in the Arctic ocean). Combined, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets contain more than 99% of the total freshwater ice on Earth.

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• Malaria - a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
• Parasite - an organism that benefits by living in/on a host organism and deriving nutrients at the host's expense.
• Host - an organism in/on which another organism lives.
• Protozoa - a group of single-celled microscopic animals (not bacteria or viruses) that includes the Plasmodium species.
• Plasmodium - a genus of parasitic protozoa, many of which cause malaria in their hosts. Four species regularly infect humans: P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, & P. ovale.
• P. falciparum - the Plasmodium species that kills the most people, by causing malignant malaria, the most dangerous form of malaria.
• Anopheles gambiae - a ‘complex' of at least seven species of mosquitoes that are the main vectors of P. falciparum in sub-Saharan Africa.
• Species complex - a group of closely related species that look so similar that the boundaries between them are often unclear.
• Hunting and gathering - depending primarily on wild foods for subsistence
• Paleontology - the study of fossils and what fossils tell us about the past, about evolution, and about how humans fit into the world.

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• Prehensile Tail: An animal tail that can grasp or hold objects. A wide range of animals have prehensile tails, including mammals (like opossums and kinkajous), reptiles (like chameleons), amphibians (like salamanders), and fish (seahorses).
• Old World Monkeys (Cercopithecidae): A family of primates native to Africa and Asia that includes baboons, guenons and macaques – all of which have non-prehensile tails.
• New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini): A family of primates native to Central and South America that includes spider monkeys, howlers, and capuchins – all of which have prehensile tails.
• Prehensile tails evolved twice in new world monkeys: In atelines (spider monkey and howlers) the prehensile tail tip is like a finger and incredibly dextrous. In cebines (capuchin monkeys) the tip is furry and not quite as dextrous.

*Species featured in this video:

Spider Monkey (and Diddy Kong!)

Ficus insipida (tripical fig tree)

Barbary Macaque (from Northern Africa)

Rhesus Macaque(from India)

Opossum

Chameleon

Salamander (Aneides lugubris)

Seahorses (actually Horsea!)

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• Crypsis: An animal’s ability to avoid detection by other animals. Tigers use camouflage crypsis as part of their predation strategy.
• Apex Predator: An animal on top of the food chain with no natural predator in its ecosystem.
• Camera Trap: A motion-sensor activated camera to capture images of animals in the wild with as little human interference as possible.
• Cultural Climate: Shared perceptions and attitudes in a particular area.

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• Filial cannibalism: is a form of infanticide that occurs when an adult individual of a species consumes all or part of the young of its own species or immediate offspring.

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• Biodiversity - the variety of genes, species, and ecosystems
• Conservation - ethical use and protection of valuable natural resources (e.g. trees, minerals, wildlife, water)
• Ecosystem - a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment
• Ecosystem services - benefits people obtain from ecosystems (four categories: supporting, provisioning, regulating, and cultural)
• Richness - the number of species in an ecological community, landscape, or region
• Pollinators - animals that help plants reproduce by moving pollen from male flowers to female flowers
• Pollution - the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment (e.g. chemicals, particles, noise, heat, light)

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• Breed group: A grouping of dog breeds based on their historical jobs.
• Dog personality traits: Levels of playfulness, curiosity, sociability, and aggressiveness that dogs exhibit based on testing.
• Animal Cognition: The study of the mental capacities of animals.
• Confirmation bias: The tendency to interpret evidence in favor of one’s existing beliefs.

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• Brain lesion: Damage to the brain caused by disease or injury.
• Broca’s area: Region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.
• Fusiform face area: Structure near the back of the brain associated with facial recognition.
• Hippocampus: Seahorse-shaped brain structure associated with memory formation.
• Amygdala: Small brain structure associated with emotions and memories.
• fMRI: An imaging procedure that measures brain activity by tracking changes associated with blood flow.

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• Abiogenesis – the process of life arising from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds.
• Amino Acids – a class of organic compounds. Twenty of the roughly 500 known amino acids appear in the genetic code, and, when strung together into long chains, form the basic building blocks of proteins.
• Faint Young Sun Paradox – describes the apparent contradiction between evidence for a warm ancient Earth, and stellar models, which predict that the young Sun was 25% dimmer than today's Sun. First described by Carl Sagan and George Mullen in 1972.
• The Miller–Urey experiment – a landmark experiment in the 1950s in which scientists demonstrated that amino acids could form spontaneously from inorganic gases present in Earth's early atmosphere
• Snowball Earth – a climatic state of Earth in which the entire surface becomes frozen over.

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• Bering land bridge: an ancient land bridge that connected Asia and North America at various times during the Quaternary glaciation, allowing Homo sapiens and other species migrations.
• The Holocene extinction: (also referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction) is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch (since around 10,000 BCE) mainly due to human activity. The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna, starting between 9,000 and 13,000 years ago, the end of the last Ice Age.
• Atlatl (spear-thrower): is a tool that uses leverage to achieve greater velocity in dart-throwing.
• Bile bears: sometimes called battery bears, are bears kept in captivity to harvest their bile, a digestive fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, which is used by some traditional Chinese medicine practitioners, though there is no evidence that bear bile has any medicinal effect, and no plausible mechanism by which it might work.

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• Disgust: A feeling of revulsion at something unpleasant
• Emotion: A mental state that arises spontaneously.
• Pathogen: A tiny living organism that can cause disease.
• Reverse Osmosis: A way to purify water by pushing it through a semipermeable membrane.
• Toilet-to-tap: A framing device used by recycled water opponents to cause people to think of sewage.
• NEWater: The brand name given to recycled water in Singapore.

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• Mycelium
• Mycorrizhae: a fungus that grows in association with the roots of a plant in a symbiotic or mildly pathogenic relationship.
• Mycoheterotroph: A plant that is completely reliant on fungus for all of its nutrition.
• Sexual deception: A trick used by numerous orchid species of looking and/or smelling like female insects in order to draw male insects to their flowers (for pollination)
• Food deception: Rather than offering pollinators real food rewards (such as nectar or pollen), some orchids merely mimic the looks and smells of other, nearby flowers that offer such rewards.
• Pollinia: In most flowering plants, pollen is a powdery substance made up of tons of individual pollen grains. But orchids pack their grains into a couple of sticky sacks (pollinia) instead.
• Epiphyte: A plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant. Lots of tropical orchids are epiphytes
• Lithophyte: A plant that grows on rocks

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• Milky Way: Earth's home galaxy
• The Malaspina Expedition 2010: A research project to explore ocean biodiversity by recreating the path of a late 18th Century scientific expedition.
• Sonar: A technique that uses soundwaves to map out underwater objects.
• Avoidance of Trawl: A behavior in which fish move out of the way of an incoming net, perhaps through bioluminescent signalling.
• Bioluminescence: Light produced by a living organism.
• Deep water fish: Fish who live more than 500m below the ocean surface in the Mesopelagic, Epipelagic, and Bathypelagic zones.

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• Data: information, typically stored on computers via electrical signals
• Electrons: small elementary particles that flow through wires to transmit power and data
• Photons: small elementary particles of light that carry information from screens to your face
• Local Metro Network: computer network on the scale of a city, town, neighborhood, etc
• Live action video: a video recording of the real world (people, scenery, etc) created using a camera
• Data compression: storing data (pictures, video, text files, etc) in less space than the way it’s normally displayed. Kind of like a modern version of microfilm. Or words.
• Illustrated video: video created using computer software to generate still images, kind of like a fancy powerpoint slideshow

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• Externality: a cost or benefit caused by an activity that affects other parties but is not taken into consideration (e.g. by being reflected in purchase prices)
• Hidden cost: a cost not included in the purchase price, such as additional expenses, opportunity costs, or externalities
• Social Cost: an expense to society that is the sum of the private costs paid by a firm or individual, and the externalities paid by other parties
• Reducetarianism: the practice of eating less meat (& dairy, eggs, & other animal products), which may be appealing because not everyone is able or willing to follow a completely meat-free diet.

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• Sexual conflict: an evolutionary mismatch between the interests of males and females, especially concerning mating strategies

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• Mass Extinction Event: a significant, global decrease in the diversity of life
• "Big 5": The five biggest mass extinction events since the Cambrian explosion of Life 550 million years ago
• Biodiversity Crisis: Like a mass extinction, a biodiversity crisis is a marked depletion in diversity in the fossil record. Some scientists prefer to call the late-Devonian extinction a "biodiversity crisis" because a lack of speciation contributed to the loss in diversity just as much as extinction did.
• Diversity curve: A line chart that shows the diversity of life (usually by genera, but sometimes by species or family) over time
• Lagerstatte: a deposit of sedimentary rock that contains a profound number of fossils, often with excellent preservation
• Shareholder Quorum Subsampling: A statistical method that corrects for some of the biases in the fossil record, allowing scientists to generate more accurate diversity curves

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• Leaf senescence
• Chlorophyll
• Carotenoid
• Anthocyanin



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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• adjuvant: substance added to a vaccine to enhance the body's immune response and increase the vaccine's efficacy
• attenuation: altering a pathogen to make it less virulent (or even harmless)
• acquired immunity: components of the immune system that are developed via exposure to pathogens or other sources of infection

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• negligible senescence: not showing signs of age-related progression
• biological immortality: having a mortality rate that does not increase with increasing age

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Extreme weather: Conditions and events that occur with low frequency, but which often have significant impact on people and nature; e.g., heat waves, droughts, heavy downpours, floods, blizzards, windstorms, hurricanes
• Ocean heat content: the energy stored as heat in the ocean
• Evapotranspiration: the movement of water vapor from land, water, plant, or animal surface into the atmosphere, driven by the drying power of the air

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Condensation: the process of water molecules glomming together into visible droplets
• Condensation nuclei: tiny solid particles that water vapor condenses onto (also called aerosols)
• Homogeneous condensation: condensation without any kind of condensation nuclei
• Dew point: the temperature below which water vapor starts to condense into droplets
• Heterogeneous condensation: condensation that happens with the help of condensation nuclei
• Critical Embryo: a cluster of water molecules big enough to easily gain more molecules
• Cloud chamber: a cool thing to check out if you want to build a particle detector at home (it involves pumping a bunch of water vapor into pure air; when a particle passes through, it leaves a streak of ionized water molecules that, in super-saturated air, can act as condensation nuclei!)

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Keystone species: a species that plays a crucial role in the functioning of an ecosystem
• Flagship species: species used as an icon for an environmental cause
• Threatened species: species assessed by the IUCN as critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable
• Triage: assigning degrees of urgency to a large number of patients to determine the order of treatment

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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