MinuteEarth

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:

• Ophidiophobia: The abnormal fear of snakes
• Lateral Undulation: Waves of lateral bending through the body that propel the snake forward.
• Trichromatic Vision: Three color receptors in the eye that allow the animal to see a wider spectrum of colors.
• Electroencephalogram: A non-invasive method of measuring electrical activity in the brain.

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• Evolutionary Mechanisms: Forces that change the frequency of genes in populations.
• Natural Selection: The process whereby traits that make animals more likely to survive and reproduce take hold in a population.
• Vestigiality: The process by which a genetically-determined structure loses some or all of its functionality.
• Genetic Drift: A change in the frequency of an allele due to random sampling.

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• Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen
• Hemoglobin also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb, is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of all vertebrates as well as the tissues of some invertebrates.
• Bilirubin is a yellow compound that occurs in the normal catabolic pathway that breaks down heme in vertebrates.
• Urobilinogen is a colourless by-product of bilirubin reduction. It is formed in the intestines by bacterial action on bilirubin. About half of the urobilinogen formed is reabsorbed and taken up via the portal vein to the liver, enters circulation and is excreted by the kidney.
• Urobilin or urochrome is the chemical primarily responsible for the yellow color of urine.
• Stercobilin is the chemical responsible for the brown color of human feces.

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• Organ transplantation - surgically transferring an organ from one person into another.
• Xenotransplantation - transplanting organs between members of different species.
• Transplant rejection - when the organ recipient’s immune system destroys transplanted tissue.
• Pluripotent stem cells - embryonic cells that can give rise to all the different types of cells that make up the body.
• CRISPR - a genome editing tool that allows scientists to modify genes in living cells.

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• Reindeer - the smaller, (semi-)domesticated version/subspecies of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)
• Caribou - the wild, north American subspecies of Rangifer tarandus (Rangifer tarandus granti and others).
• Wild reindeer - the wild, European/Asian subspecies of Rangifer tarandus.
• Herding - bringing animals together into a group, maintaining the group, and moving the group from place to place
• Rain-on-snow event - exactly what it sounds like! Rain that falls on snow, freezes into a thick layer of impenetrable ice over pastures, and causes mass starvation of reindeer (or caribou).

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• Foraminifera: a class of single-celled marine organisms – protists, not animals – that live either near the surface ("planktonic foraminifera") or on the seafloor ("benthic foraminifera"). Called forams for short.
• Climate proxy: something that tells us what the climate was like in the past, such as data from the thickness of tree rings, the composition of gases trapped in ancient ice, historical human records of annual bloom times (eg the long-recorded bloom dates of cherry trees in Kyoto, Japan), or the ratios of certain stable isotopes found in shells, corals, or other biogenic substances
• Oxygen-18: a stable isotope of oxygen that contains 8 protons and 10 neutrons, rather than the 8 protons and 8 neutrons of "regular" oxygen (oxygen-16). The ratio of oxygen-18 to oxygen-16 in seawater (and sea shells) can be used as a proxy for the global average temperature
• Ice sheet: a permanent layer of ice covering land, as found in polar regions (and as distinguished from sea ice, like the stuff that floats at the north pole in the Arctic ocean). Combined, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets contain more than 99% of the total freshwater ice on Earth.

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• Malaria - a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
• Parasite - an organism that benefits by living in/on a host organism and deriving nutrients at the host's expense.
• Host - an organism in/on which another organism lives.
• Protozoa - a group of single-celled microscopic animals (not bacteria or viruses) that includes the Plasmodium species.
• Plasmodium - a genus of parasitic protozoa, many of which cause malaria in their hosts. Four species regularly infect humans: P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, & P. ovale.
• P. falciparum - the Plasmodium species that kills the most people, by causing malignant malaria, the most dangerous form of malaria.
• Anopheles gambiae - a ‘complex' of at least seven species of mosquitoes that are the main vectors of P. falciparum in sub-Saharan Africa.
• Species complex - a group of closely related species that look so similar that the boundaries between them are often unclear.
• Hunting and gathering - depending primarily on wild foods for subsistence
• Paleontology - the study of fossils and what fossils tell us about the past, about evolution, and about how humans fit into the world.

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• Prehensile Tail: An animal tail that can grasp or hold objects. A wide range of animals have prehensile tails, including mammals (like opossums and kinkajous), reptiles (like chameleons), amphibians (like salamanders), and fish (seahorses).
• Old World Monkeys (Cercopithecidae): A family of primates native to Africa and Asia that includes baboons, guenons and macaques – all of which have non-prehensile tails.
• New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini): A family of primates native to Central and South America that includes spider monkeys, howlers, and capuchins – all of which have prehensile tails.
• Prehensile tails evolved twice in new world monkeys: In atelines (spider monkey and howlers) the prehensile tail tip is like a finger and incredibly dextrous. In cebines (capuchin monkeys) the tip is furry and not quite as dextrous.

*Species featured in this video:

Spider Monkey (and Diddy Kong!)

Ficus insipida (tripical fig tree)

Barbary Macaque (from Northern Africa)

Rhesus Macaque(from India)

Opossum

Chameleon

Salamander (Aneides lugubris)

Seahorses (actually Horsea!)

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• Crypsis: An animal’s ability to avoid detection by other animals. Tigers use camouflage crypsis as part of their predation strategy.
• Apex Predator: An animal on top of the food chain with no natural predator in its ecosystem.
• Camera Trap: A motion-sensor activated camera to capture images of animals in the wild with as little human interference as possible.
• Cultural Climate: Shared perceptions and attitudes in a particular area.

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• Filial cannibalism: is a form of infanticide that occurs when an adult individual of a species consumes all or part of the young of its own species or immediate offspring.

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• Biodiversity - the variety of genes, species, and ecosystems
• Conservation - ethical use and protection of valuable natural resources (e.g. trees, minerals, wildlife, water)
• Ecosystem - a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment
• Ecosystem services - benefits people obtain from ecosystems (four categories: supporting, provisioning, regulating, and cultural)
• Richness - the number of species in an ecological community, landscape, or region
• Pollinators - animals that help plants reproduce by moving pollen from male flowers to female flowers
• Pollution - the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment (e.g. chemicals, particles, noise, heat, light)

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• Breed group: A grouping of dog breeds based on their historical jobs.
• Dog personality traits: Levels of playfulness, curiosity, sociability, and aggressiveness that dogs exhibit based on testing.
• Animal Cognition: The study of the mental capacities of animals.
• Confirmation bias: The tendency to interpret evidence in favor of one’s existing beliefs.

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• Brain lesion: Damage to the brain caused by disease or injury.
• Broca’s area: Region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.
• Fusiform face area: Structure near the back of the brain associated with facial recognition.
• Hippocampus: Seahorse-shaped brain structure associated with memory formation.
• Amygdala: Small brain structure associated with emotions and memories.
• fMRI: An imaging procedure that measures brain activity by tracking changes associated with blood flow.

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• Abiogenesis – the process of life arising from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds.
• Amino Acids – a class of organic compounds. Twenty of the roughly 500 known amino acids appear in the genetic code, and, when strung together into long chains, form the basic building blocks of proteins.
• Faint Young Sun Paradox – describes the apparent contradiction between evidence for a warm ancient Earth, and stellar models, which predict that the young Sun was 25% dimmer than today's Sun. First described by Carl Sagan and George Mullen in 1972.
• The Miller–Urey experiment – a landmark experiment in the 1950s in which scientists demonstrated that amino acids could form spontaneously from inorganic gases present in Earth's early atmosphere
• Snowball Earth – a climatic state of Earth in which the entire surface becomes frozen over.

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• Bering land bridge: an ancient land bridge that connected Asia and North America at various times during the Quaternary glaciation, allowing Homo sapiens and other species migrations.
• The Holocene extinction: (also referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction) is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch (since around 10,000 BCE) mainly due to human activity. The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna, starting between 9,000 and 13,000 years ago, the end of the last Ice Age.
• Atlatl (spear-thrower): is a tool that uses leverage to achieve greater velocity in dart-throwing.
• Bile bears: sometimes called battery bears, are bears kept in captivity to harvest their bile, a digestive fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, which is used by some traditional Chinese medicine practitioners, though there is no evidence that bear bile has any medicinal effect, and no plausible mechanism by which it might work.

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• Disgust: A feeling of revulsion at something unpleasant
• Emotion: A mental state that arises spontaneously.
• Pathogen: A tiny living organism that can cause disease.
• Reverse Osmosis: A way to purify water by pushing it through a semipermeable membrane.
• Toilet-to-tap: A framing device used by recycled water opponents to cause people to think of sewage.
• NEWater: The brand name given to recycled water in Singapore.

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• Mycelium
• Mycorrizhae: a fungus that grows in association with the roots of a plant in a symbiotic or mildly pathogenic relationship.
• Mycoheterotroph: A plant that is completely reliant on fungus for all of its nutrition.
• Sexual deception: A trick used by numerous orchid species of looking and/or smelling like female insects in order to draw male insects to their flowers (for pollination)
• Food deception: Rather than offering pollinators real food rewards (such as nectar or pollen), some orchids merely mimic the looks and smells of other, nearby flowers that offer such rewards.
• Pollinia: In most flowering plants, pollen is a powdery substance made up of tons of individual pollen grains. But orchids pack their grains into a couple of sticky sacks (pollinia) instead.
• Epiphyte: A plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant. Lots of tropical orchids are epiphytes
• Lithophyte: A plant that grows on rocks

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• Milky Way: Earth's home galaxy
• The Malaspina Expedition 2010: A research project to explore ocean biodiversity by recreating the path of a late 18th Century scientific expedition.
• Sonar: A technique that uses soundwaves to map out underwater objects.
• Avoidance of Trawl: A behavior in which fish move out of the way of an incoming net, perhaps through bioluminescent signalling.
• Bioluminescence: Light produced by a living organism.
• Deep water fish: Fish who live more than 500m below the ocean surface in the Mesopelagic, Epipelagic, and Bathypelagic zones.

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• Data: information, typically stored on computers via electrical signals
• Electrons: small elementary particles that flow through wires to transmit power and data
• Photons: small elementary particles of light that carry information from screens to your face
• Local Metro Network: computer network on the scale of a city, town, neighborhood, etc
• Live action video: a video recording of the real world (people, scenery, etc) created using a camera
• Data compression: storing data (pictures, video, text files, etc) in less space than the way it’s normally displayed. Kind of like a modern version of microfilm. Or words.
• Illustrated video: video created using computer software to generate still images, kind of like a fancy powerpoint slideshow

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Externality: a cost or benefit caused by an activity that affects other parties but is not taken into consideration (e.g. by being reflected in purchase prices)
• Hidden cost: a cost not included in the purchase price, such as additional expenses, opportunity costs, or externalities
• Social Cost: an expense to society that is the sum of the private costs paid by a firm or individual, and the externalities paid by other parties
• Reducetarianism: the practice of eating less meat (& dairy, eggs, & other animal products), which may be appealing because not everyone is able or willing to follow a completely meat-free diet.

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Sexual conflict: an evolutionary mismatch between the interests of males and females, especially concerning mating strategies

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Mass Extinction Event: a significant, global decrease in the diversity of life
• "Big 5": The five biggest mass extinction events since the Cambrian explosion of Life 550 million years ago
• Biodiversity Crisis: Like a mass extinction, a biodiversity crisis is a marked depletion in diversity in the fossil record. Some scientists prefer to call the late-Devonian extinction a "biodiversity crisis" because a lack of speciation contributed to the loss in diversity just as much as extinction did.
• Diversity curve: A line chart that shows the diversity of life (usually by genera, but sometimes by species or family) over time
• Lagerstatte: a deposit of sedimentary rock that contains a profound number of fossils, often with excellent preservation
• Shareholder Quorum Subsampling: A statistical method that corrects for some of the biases in the fossil record, allowing scientists to generate more accurate diversity curves

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Leaf senescence
• Chlorophyll
• Carotenoid
• Anthocyanin



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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• adjuvant: substance added to a vaccine to enhance the body's immune response and increase the vaccine's efficacy
• attenuation: altering a pathogen to make it less virulent (or even harmless)
• acquired immunity: components of the immune system that are developed via exposure to pathogens or other sources of infection

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• negligible senescence: not showing signs of age-related progression
• biological immortality: having a mortality rate that does not increase with increasing age

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Extreme weather: Conditions and events that occur with low frequency, but which often have significant impact on people and nature; e.g., heat waves, droughts, heavy downpours, floods, blizzards, windstorms, hurricanes
• Ocean heat content: the energy stored as heat in the ocean
• Evapotranspiration: the movement of water vapor from land, water, plant, or animal surface into the atmosphere, driven by the drying power of the air

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Condensation: the process of water molecules glomming together into visible droplets
• Condensation nuclei: tiny solid particles that water vapor condenses onto (also called aerosols)
• Homogeneous condensation: condensation without any kind of condensation nuclei
• Dew point: the temperature below which water vapor starts to condense into droplets
• Heterogeneous condensation: condensation that happens with the help of condensation nuclei
• Critical Embryo: a cluster of water molecules big enough to easily gain more molecules
• Cloud chamber: a cool thing to check out if you want to build a particle detector at home (it involves pumping a bunch of water vapor into pure air; when a particle passes through, it leaves a streak of ionized water molecules that, in super-saturated air, can act as condensation nuclei!)

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Keystone species: a species that plays a crucial role in the functioning of an ecosystem
• Flagship species: species used as an icon for an environmental cause
• Threatened species: species assessed by the IUCN as critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable
• Triage: assigning degrees of urgency to a large number of patients to determine the order of treatment

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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- Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth  

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info

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MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info 

To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Ecological niche: is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition.
• Niche differentiation: refers to the process by which competing species use the environment differently in a way that helps them to coexist.

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To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: 

• Cimex lectularius: is a species of Cimicidae (bed bugs). Its primary hosts are humans, and it is one of the world's major "nuisance pests". Both male and female Cimex lectularius feed on humans.
• Traumatic insemination: also known as hypodermic insemination, is the mating practice in some species of invertebrates in which the male pierces the female's abdomen with his aedeagus and injects his sperm through the wound into her abdominal cavity (hemocoel).
• Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane: commonly known as DDT, is a chemical compound originally developed as an insecticide. DDT was used in the second half of World War II to limit the spread of the insect-borne diseases malaria and typhus among civilians and troops. Due to its environmental impacts it was banned in the United States for agricultural uses in 1972. A worldwide ban on agricultural use has been in effect since 2004.
• Pesticide resistance: describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest. Pest species evolve pesticide resistance via natural selection: the most resistant specimens survive and pass on their acquired heritable changes traits to their offspring.

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Why do rivers curve? Why did the T. rex have such tiny arms? And why do so many more kids need glasses now than they used to? Spoiler alert: it isn't screentime. From the creators of the popular science show with millions of YouTube subscribers comes the MinuteEarth podcast. Every episode of the show dives deep into a science question you might not even know you had - but once you hear the answer, you’ll want to share it with everyone you know. Our team of scientists digs into the research and breaks it down into a short, entertaining explanation jam-packed with science facts and terrible puns. We’ll tell the incredible story of how monkeys crossed the Atlantic ocean on natural rafts, and we’ll explain why it gets hotter the deeper you dig underground. If you like the Earth, then you’ll love MinuteEarth. Subscribe on Apple, Spotify, Amazon, or wherever you like to listen.

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