The Science of Everything Podcast

I discuss the mysterious phenomenon of sleep, outlining the different stages of sleep, how the brain controls sleep and wakefulness, and the various theories for the functions of sleep. I also consider sleep in animals, the effects of sleep deprivation, and some major sleep disorders. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses.

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I introduce the unique and diverse chemistry of the transition metal elements, also known as the d-block metals. I begin with an overview of transition metal properties and ores, and then discuss coordination complexes, ligands, denticity, chelation, coordination geometries, isomerism, and the difference between strong and weak field ligands. We then examine how crystal field theory can explain many properties of transition metals, including their unique colouration and magnetic properties. The episode concludes with an overview of organometallic compounds and ligand field theory, including how pi-bonding can explain the difference between strong and weak field ligands.

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Concluding our series on geographic landforms, here I discuss glaciers, including their global distribution, formation, movement, and various glacial formations such as moraines, drumlins, and fjords. I also examine the role of ice in shaping periglacial landscapes, including the effects of permafrost and other frost action processes. I conclude with a brief discussion of groundwater, aquifers, and the hydrological cycle.

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A discussion of the effect of wind on landscapes, focusing on deserts and coastlines. I outline the processes of eolian erosion, transportation, and deposition occurring in deserts, with particular focus on the formation and types of sand dunes. I also discuss other desert landforms, such as the desert pavement, mesas, and alluvial fans. I conclude with a look at coastal processes, including cliff erosion, emergent and submergent coastlines, and beach erosion processes.

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The first in a new series on geomorphology, in which I review the main erosion processes that shape landforms of the natural environment. Here I discuss the key mechanisms of physical and chemical weathering, outline the major forms of erosion, and provide an overview of mass wasting including rockslides and soil creep. I then present an overview of stream processes, including a discussion of river drainage systems, channel patterns, meandering streams, and stream loads. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 75: Rocks and Minerals.

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An exploration of the role of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the development of depression. I discuss the role of serotonin in promoting the production of neurotrophic growth factor, the role the growth factor plays in facilitating neurogenesis and neural plasticity, and the various regions of the brain which are implicated in depression. I conclude by discussing the various cognitive distortions and other phenomena associated with depression, and how they can be treated by both pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses.

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In this special episode I discuss genetic testing with Kira Dineen from DNA Today. We cover a range of topics including the process and science behind genetic testing, the types of genetic conditions that can be tested for, the difference between genotyping and gene sequencing, and the promises and potential issues with direct to consumer genetic testing. We also discuss developing social practises surrounding the use of gene technology, difficulties of informed concept, use of genetic material for criminal justice and ancestry databases, and potential future developments of these technologies. 

Link to Kira's podcast:

DNA Today (dnapodcast.com)

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A discussion of earthquakes, covering the elastic rebound theory of earthquake generation, the phenomena of deep and intraplate earthquakes, types of seismic waves, methods of earthquake detection, different ways in which earthquakes cause damage, and attempts at earthquake prediction. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 111: Plate Tectonics.

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A discussion of the awesome power of volcanoes, including an overview of the different types of volcanoes, types of lava and pyroclastics, mechanisms of volcanic eruptions, a curvey of volcanic landforms, and a review of some major historical eruptions and their effects on Earth's climate. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 111: Plate Tectonics.

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Concluding the two-part series on the circulatory and respiratory systems, I discuss the biochemical mechanisms by which red blood cells and hemoglobin molecules deliver oxygen to the tissues and carbon dioxide to the lungs, and the mechanisms which regulate these processes. I then consider the respiratory system, giving an overview of the structure and function of the lungs, the process of breathing, control of breathing, and adaptations to high altitudes. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 122: Respiratory and Circulatory Systems Part 2.

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An overview of the basic concepts of linear momentum, angular momentum, work and energy. Includes a discussion of the conservation of momentum, why the concept is needed, and some applications of the concept to collisions and rotating objects. The nature of energy is also discussed, along with the different forms of energy, and how the concepts of energy and work are related.

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A discussion of the importance of the profit motive and freedom of competition in the efficient operation of a market economy. Includes an overview of the uniformity of profit principle, and an examination of how competition serves as both an opportunity and a disciplining agent for entrepreneurs and firms, thus promoting useful innovations while weeding out bad ideas.

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An overview of how atoms bond together to form different chemical substances, including a discussion of the tree main types of bonds (covalent, ionic and metallic), and the relationship of these bonding types to the concept of electronegativity. I also discuss the difference between polar and non-polar bonds, and conclude with some interesting applications of bonding theory to understanding the properties of materials.

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An introduction to the key principles of quantum mechanics, beginning with an examination of the quantum-mechanical description of the behaviour of electrons around atomic nuclei. This is followed by an overview of some of the other major principles of quantum theory, including the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, the Pauli Exclusion Principle, quantum tunnelling and entanglement. The episode concludes with a discussion of alternative interpretations of these quantum phenomena. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 8: The Atom.

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An introduction to basic Newtonian physics, including a discussion of forces, velocity, acceleration, Newton’s three laws of motion, and some common misconceptions about forces. I also discuss circular motion, and conclude with a brief look at the physics of walking and driving a car.

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An examination of how the price system works, including an introduction to supply and demand theory, and the concepts of clearing the market and surplus maximisation. I also look at how the price system promotes efficiency helps to regulate economic activity. I conclude with a discussion of how prices store and communicate economic information.

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An overview of the chaotic inflationary theory for the origin of the universe, including a discussion of the inflaton field, quantum fluctuations, spontaneous symmetry breaking, and the zero net energy of the universe. Also includes a discussion of the multiverse and the fine-tuning paradox. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 14: Principles of Quantum Mechanics.

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An overview of the structure and function of cells, as well as their discovery, size, and classifications. Organelles discussed include the nucleus, plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria. Also includes with a brief discussion of the unique properties of plant cells.

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An introduction to the nature, phases, and atomic composition of matter, along with a look at elements, ions, isotopes and the periodic table. The episode concludes with an explanation of molecules, including elemental, ionic and macromolecules.

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An examination of the atom, beginning with the origin of the concept in ancient Greece, and its subsequent development as a truly scientific idea in the 19th century. I explain the various important contributions made to the field by Thomson, Rutherford, Planck, Einstein and de Broglie, and the resultant evolution of our models of the atom.

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A look into the fascinating psychological phenomenon of the introspection illusion. We explore the research behind this phenomenon, and the many implications that it has for human behaviour, including such startling conclusions as people are much more biased, much less observant and much more malleable than they think.

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An introduction to the principles of thermodynamics, including a look at temperature and heat, the laws of thermodynamics, perpetual motion, methods of transferring energy, and the phenomenon of entropy.

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An analysis of corporate conspiracy theories, including the alleged suppression of the cure for cancer and sabotage of the electric car. Using economic analysis and game theory, I outline the true incentives and constraints facing the firms in these industries, and explain why any such conspiracies would be enormously difficult to pull off.

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An overview of current theories about how life arose from non-living matter, including an overview of the conditions on early earth, definitions of life, the source of organic monomers, the mechanisms of polymerisation of these monomers, and the possible means by which the first proto-cell developed.

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An examination of the perceived advantages of organic food in terms of safety, nutrition and taste, followed by a comparison of the costs and yield efficiencies of conventional versus organic farming techniques.

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A discussion of the history of organic agriculture, the philosophy behind it, and the main methods used. Also includes a look at the environmental benefits of organic farming, including the effects on erosion, water pollution and biodiversity.

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The first in a two-part episode covering the circulatory and respiratory systems, including a discussion of the anatomy of the heart, the process of contraction, and the generation and propagation of electrical activity. I also discuss how the heart functions as a pump, the various types of blood vessels, and control of the heart rate by the brain. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 25: Tissues, Organs and Systems, and Episode 26: Human Organ Systems.

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An overview of the underlying mechanisms of pain, including the role of nociception, transduction of nociceptor signals by spinal pathways, the modulatory effects of opioids, and processing of these inputs in the brain. I also discuss phenomena such as referred pain, psychogenic pain, and congenital insensitivity to pain.

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Building on the previous discussion of Hartree-Fock Theory, I discuss the inclusion of basis functions to produce the Roothaan equations, and the method of solving these using self-consistent field methods. I then provide an introduction into techniques to incorporate electron correlation by adding Slater determinants, focusing on the Configuration Interaction method. I then provide a brief overview of semi-empirical methods, Density Functional Theory, and molecular mechanics. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 119: Computational Chemistry Part 1.

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An overview of techniques of determining molecular structure, including an introduction to valance bond theory covering bond formation and orbital hybridisation, and a discussion of the basics of molecular orbital theory, covering the basics of the Hartree-Fock method for solving the Schrödinger equation and finding molecular orbitals. In the process I also discuss the Pauli exclusion principle, the effect of electron spin, and the indistinguishability of electrons.

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A discussion of cell communication and signalling, including an overview of the purpose of cell signalling, the main types of signals, and applications such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and cytokines. The difference between G protein-coupled receptors, enzyme-linked receptors, and intracellular receptors is also considered, concluding with a summary of the process of signal transduction and the role of second messengers. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 116: The Cell Membrane.

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A discussion of the transportation and sorting of proteins within the eukaryotic cell, including an overview of the endomembrane system, the mechanisms of nuclear transport, transmembrane transport, and vesicular transport. I also consider the structure and functions of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes, and how they are joined together in a complex network of protein transportation and vesicular traffic. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 116: The Cell Membrane.

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An introduction to the cell membrane, including a discussion of the structure of the bilipid membrane, an overview of the structure and function of membrane proteins, a review of the fluid mosaic model, and a discussion of mechanisms of membrane transport, including both passive and active transport. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 10: The Cell, and Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics.

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In the second and final part of this series, I discuss the major consequences of special relativity, including the relativity of simultaneity, time dilation, length contraction, and mass-energy equivalence. I then provide an overview of some of the experimental tests of special relativity, and conclude with an analysis of some alleged paradoxes in relativity, including the twins paradox, and the ladder paradox. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 114: Special Relativity Part 1.

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The first of a two part series on special relativity, I provide a brief overview of the historical development of relativity theory, including a discussion of the role of the Michelson-Morley experiment, and considerations from classical electromagnetism. I then outline Einstein's two postulates, discuss their meaning, and provide some explanation for how to interpret a constant speed of light. I also provide an introduction to Lorentz transformations and the notion of spacetime. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 13: Newtonian Mechanics.

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I discuss the methods and results of my Master's Thesis, in which I analysed electrophysiological data of the mouse visual system using a variety of statistical and computational techniques. I consider some of the major research questions addressed in my work, including population encoding, stimulus representation, neural network modelling, and state space modelling of information transformation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 113: Visual Processing.

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A discussion of higher-order processing of information in the visual system, including an overview of how the brain extracts edges and basic shapes from simple stimuli in the retina, how motion is detected, how parts of objects are distinguished, how object recognition occurs, and the differences between grandmother cell and distributed processing theories of neural encoding. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 47: Vision Part III.

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An overview of the field of microbiology, beginning with a brief history of the discipline, and then proceeding through a summary of the structure and function of various microbial life forms, including protists, yeasts, bacteria, archaea, viruses, and prions. The episode concludes with a discussion of microbial growth and methods to reduce it. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 10: The Cell.

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An introduction to the theory of plate tectonics, beginning with an overview of the internal structure of Earth, the differences between oceanic and continental crust, subduction and other forms of plate boundaries, the formation of volcanic arcs, the origin of the Earth's magnetic field, and the mechanisms underlying tectonic plate movement. The episode concludes with a summary of the varies lines of evidence in favour of continental drift, including seafloor spread, biogeography, and polar wandering. Recommended prelistening is Episode 74: Minerals and Rocks.

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Building on the basic concepts discussed in the previous episode, this episode examines the formation and development of a wide range of weather phenomena, including air fronts, midlatitude cyclones, tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, and tornadoes. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 109: Weather Part I.

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An introduction to key concepts relevant to understanding weather, including relative and absolute humidity, atmospheric stability, cloud formation and classification, types of precipitation, and the formation and classification of air masses. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 90: Climate Systems.

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In this sixth and final part in our series on economic growth and development, I discuss in more detail some of the key institutions necessary for economic growth to begin, focusing on property rights, enforcement of contracts, and control of corruption. I review the importance of these institutions in the context of historical case studies of countries ranging from the Soviet Union to Mexico, and outline how the most critical institutions vary with the level of development, giving rise to a middle income trap. I also discuss the Washington Consensus and critically analyse the arguments of critics that such institutional reform is not essential for growth. I conclude with a summary of all we have learned and discussed throughout the growth series. The recommended pre-listening is Episode 107: Economic Growth and Development Part V.

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In this fifth part of our series on economic growth and development, I examine the major factors that have been advanced as explaining differences in growth outcomes between countries. I provide a summary of the arguments and evidence for and against the importance of culture, dependency, democracy, geography, education, and institutions in accounting for differential growth outcomes, and conclude with a comparative empirical analysis in which I argue that institutional differences explain the majority of growth differences. The Recommended pre-listening is Episode 106: Economic Growth and Development Part IV.

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In this fourth part of our series on economic growth and development, I outline the major theories of economic development developed over the past sixty years. I trace the development of such theories beginning with the Harrod-Domar theory, and proceeding through the Solow-Swan model, the Ramsey model, Romer's spillovers model, and endogenous growth theory, in each case discussing their key features, and analysing their strengths and weaknesses. The episode concludes with a brief survey of a range of more recent growth models focusing on modelling coordination failures and poverty traps, emphasising the work of Daron Acemoglu on economic institutions. The Recommended pre-listening is Episode 105: Economic Growth and Development Part III.

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Astrophysicist Mario Livio joins me to discuss his latest book 'Galileo and the Science Deniers', which chronicles the scientific discoveries of Galileo Galilei and how his advocacy of the heliocentric theory led him into confrontation with the Pope. Our conversation covers the significance of Galileo's discovers, the strengths and weaknesses of his case for the heliocentric theory, his role in establishing the modern scientific method, and what we can learn from this episode in history about the importance of intellectual freedom and science communication in the present day.

Check out Mario's book on Amazon.

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In this third part of the series on economic growth, I discuss the process of structural change as economies progress from underdeveloped to developed, beginning with an overview and historical analysis of Rostow's Stages of Growth model. I then discuss the structures of agricultural production around the world, focusing on barriers to adoption of more modern agricultural techniques and proposed reforms, such as adoption of cash crops, land reform, and improving the security of land tenure. I conclude with an analysis of the benefits and problems associated with urbanisation, incorporating a discussion of agglomeration economies, spillover effects, urban gigantism, and the informal urban sector. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 104: Economic Growth and Development Part II.

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In the second part of our series on economic growth and development, I provide a brief history of the world economy, beginning with the key features of premodern economies and the Malthusian trap. I then outline critical developments and points of debate in subsequent economic history, including the Great Divergence, the First and Second Industrial Revolutions, the Great Depression and era of central planning, the Bretton Woods era and the gold standard, and the modern period of neoliberalism and globalisation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 103: Economic Growth and Development Part I.

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In this the first in an eight-part series covering the causes of economic growth and development, I provide an introduction to the key concepts of absolute and relative poverty, different theories of development, and how GDP is defined and measured. I also discuss the differences between rural and urban poverty, give an overview of the different levels of development of various countries around the world, and outline some of the major methodological challenges in studying causes of economic growth around the world. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 12: The Price System, and Episode 56: The Gains from Trade.

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Continuing the discussion of photosynthesis from the previous episode, here I outline the importance of the oxygen evolving complex in oxidising water molecules, the importance of photosystem I in extracting additional energy, and the role of light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle in carrying out carbon fixation. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 101: Photosynthesis Part I.

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An overview of photosynthesis, including the structure of chloroplasts, phototransduction of energy by chlorophyll, the macromolecular complexes of the thylakoid membrane. I also discuss the mechanisms of electron transfer along the electron transport chain, and the role of ATP synthase in generating ATP. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 75: Cellular Respiration, Episode 32: Light and Optics, and Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics.

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A special episode in which I discuss some of the ideas and principles behind the production of the show, sources I use for episodes, and my motivations for starting the podcast. I also talk about my own background and research interests, my thoughts about the relationship between science and philosophy, and some ideas for the future of the Science of Everything Podcast.

In this special celebratory 100th episode, I discuss six major unsolved problems in science: the P vs NP problem in computer science, the mystery of dark matter in physics, the existence of the island of stability in chemistry, the historical occurrence of a snowball Earth scenario from geology, the protein folding problem from biochemistry, and the origin of the Cambrian explosion in evolutionary biology. I also discuss some important ideas relating to the future of the podcast.

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A discussion of the method of reproduction of flowering plants, including an overview of the structure and function of the different components of the flower, pollination, double fertilisation, and seed formation, dispersal, and germination. I also discuss the different types of fruit and vegetables and how the different components of the plant relate to the parts that we consume. I conclude with a brief overview of non-edible plant products, including fibres, resin, and sap. Recommended prerequisite is Episode 97: Plant Structure and Function.

An overview of the nature and properties of electromagnetic radiation, including a discussion of the electromagnetic spectrum, the nature of photons, the speed of light, near and far field radiation, and technological applications of electromagnetic radiation in AM and FM radiation and microwave ovens. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 61: Magnetism and Episode 57: Electric Current and Circuits.

An overview of the basic morphology and physiology of plants, including a discussion of the main types of plants, stems, roots, leaves, plant transport, meristems, plant nutrition, and plant sensory systems.

In this special episode I am joined by Jared Bauer, cofounder of Wisecrack, to discuss science and philosophy in movies and popular culture. We cover a range of topics including how science is portrayed in movies, how the film medium leads to science and history being presented in particular ways, and how movies and popular culture can be used as a vehicle for promoting scientific and philosophical inquiry.

In the final episode of our series on computers, I give an introduction to high-level programming languages, how they relate to assembly language and machine code, and how the compiler converts high level programs into a form that can be executed by the processor. I then outline some of the key components to high-level programming, such as data structures, control structures, and algorithms, before sketching an example implementation of a simple game. I conclude with an integrative summary of computer structure from silicon up to the operating system.

In this the fifth episode of the series 'how computers work', I begin with a summary of some of the major methods of improving the performance of the central processing unit, including pipelining, cache memory, branch prediction, and parallel processing. Following a brief introduction to assembly langague and its relationship to the machine code, I then discuss the operating system and how it interfaces with the hardware to manage program memory, system calls, input/output, and processes.

In this fourth part in our series on computers, I begin with an overview of the von Neumann architecture used in most modern computers. This leads in a discussion of the structure and operation of the central processing unit, covering the instruction register, the program counter, main memory, the data and address buses, the ALU, and the control Unit. I then discuss the purpose and implementation of a number of key operations in the instruction set architecture, including arithmetic operations, data movement operations, and conditional branches.

In this third part of the series on computers I begin with an overview of Boolean algebra, including a discussion of key logic functions such as NOT, AND, and OR, and also discuss how CMOS logic gates implementing these functions are fabricated from transistors. I then survey the wide variety of logic components used in electronic circuits, including the multiplexor, adder, tristate buffer, flip-flops, comparator, and clock generator, and discuss the functions fulfilled by these devices in modern computers.

In this second episode in the series, I explain binary digital coding to motivate a discussion of the operation of transistors. Beginning with an examination of the properties of semiconductors and why they are useful for constructing transistors, I then examine how MOSFET transistors are constructed by combining pMOS and nMOS semiconductors.

We begin our series discussing how computers work with an overview of the theory of computation, including a discussion of Turing machines and Turing completeness, and a brief history of early analog and digital computers. I also provide an introduction to the key components of a modern computer, and review the different levels in the hierarchy of computer organisation.

An analysis of the major factors influencing climactic variation over Earth's surface, including a discussion of the effect of differential heating at different latitudes, the impact of continentality and sea breezes, the causes of monsoons, the coriolis effect, atmospheric circulation cells, the jet streams, and thermohaline circulation currents in Earth's oceans. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 88: Cartography and Earths Seasons, and Episode 89: The Atmosphere.

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An overview of the composition and layers of the Earth's atmosphere, including a discussion of the exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. I also discuss the ozone layer and ozone depletion, the Karman line which marks the boundary of space, and the ionosphere. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 42: Gases and Gas Laws.

A discussion of the shape of the Earth and the difficulties and conventions involved in describing a three-dimensional surface on a two-dimensional map, including an overview of some of the major map projections and their various limitations. This leads in to an overview of Earth's axial tilt and variation in solar insolation by latitude as an explanation for the seasonal variation in weather across the planet. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 87: The Geography of Planet Earth.

An overview of some of the key geographic features of planet Earth, including a discussion of the concept and classification of continents, the major mountain ranges and major river basins around the planet. I also discuss the major world biomes, their major climactic and botanical features, and their relative locations across the Earth.

An outline of the various lines of evidence in favour of the theory of evolution by natural selection, including a discussion of natural and artificial examples of natural selection in action, as well as a review of the evidence from the fossil record, comparative anatomy, biogeography, and molecular evidence. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 21: Introduction to Evolution.

A discussion of some of the major conceptual aspects of Quantum Field Theory, including the concept of a quantum field, classical field theory, harmonic oscillators, second quantisation, interacting theories, and the relationship of QFT to other branches of physics. Recommended pre-listening is Episodes 83 and 84, Advanced Quantum Mechanics parts I and II.

Continuing on from the previous episode, here I discuss some more advanced topics in Quantum Mechanics, including Noether’s theorem, the particle statistics of Bosons and Fermions, perturbation theory, and the EPR paradox. Recommended Pre-listening is Episode 83: Advanced Quantum Mechanics Part I.

An examination of some more advanced concepts of quantum mechanics, focusing on describing Dirac's bra-ket formulation of quantum theory. I discuss the formulation of quantum mechanics in terms of vectors in Hilbert spaces, Hermitian operators as corresponding to observables, orthogonality of eigenstates, incompatible observables, and Schrodinger's equation. Recommeded pre-listening is Episode 14: Principles of Quantum Mechanics.

A discussion of the evidence and methodological issues pertaining to explaining the causes of racial differences in intelligence, with a focus on evaluating the hereditarian hypothesis that such differences are largely genetic. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 81: Intelligence Part 2.

Continuing the series on intelligence, in this episode I discuss the genetic and neurological correlated of intelligences, the efficacy of measures to increase intelligence, and the causes and consequences of the Flynn effect. Also includes an analysis of the heritability of intelligence and how to properly interpret heritabilty research. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 80: Intelligence Part 1.

The first in a three part series on human intelligence, covering debates about the definition of intelligence, how intelligence is measured, factor analysis and the origin of the g factor, and interpretations of the g factor as corresponding to intelligence. Also includes an analysis of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, and the cross-cultural validity of intelligence tests. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 79: Basic Concepts in Statistics.

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A concise introduction to key concepts of statistics, explained in as clear a manner as possible. Includes a discussion of key concepts of probability, types of statistical data, sampling methods, the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics, statistical significance, and p-values. I conclude with a brief look at three common statistical tests; the chi-square test, t-test, and linear regression.

An explanation of the process of human hearing, covering the structure and function of the outer, middle, and inner ears, with a focus on explaining how the hair cells of the cochlea transduce mechanical motion into electrical signals that are interpreted as sound. I also discuss the mechanisms of sound localisation, some of the causes of deafness, and briefly outline the workings of the cochlea implant. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 53: Sound and Music.

An introduction to the physics of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus, with a focus on explaining the different modes of radioactivity, alpha, beta, and gamma decay, as well as different ways of measuring radiation and some of its biological effects. I also discuss some applications of radioactivity in radiometric dating, radiotherapy, nuclear power, and nuclear weapons. I conclude by discussing a few popular misconceptions about radioactivity. Recommending prelistening is Episode 8: History of the Atom.

An introduction to the economic concepts of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and unemployment, including a discussion of how these concepts are defined, how they are measured, their relevance to understanding economic activity, and some limitations of these concepts as they are currently employed. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 65: Inflation and Interest Rates.

An overview of the processes involved in the generation of energy in cells, including a discussion of the role of ATP in energy storage, glycolysis, the krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, and ATP synthase. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics.

A discussion of minerals, including their main properties such as crystal structure, habit, cleavage, lustre, and hardness, followed by a brief overview of some of the major mineral classes, with a focus on the various types of silicate minerals. I also discuss the rock cycle and the relationship between the three major types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. 

Continuing on from the previous episode, I discuss the role of antibodies and antigens in mediating adaptive immunity, and follow with a discussion of the functions and roles of B-cells and T-cells. I conclude the episode with an overview of the many components of the immune system and a discussion of how they interact to protect the body from pathogens. Recommended prelistening is Episode 72: Introduction to the Immune System Part I.

An overview of the human immune system, beginning with some basic anatomy of the lymphatic system, and proceeding through a discussion of the distinction between the innate and adaptive immune systems, the role of skin and mucus membranes in providing barriers to pathogen entry, the inflammatory response, an overview of the different types of leukocytes, and an initial foray into the workings of the complement system. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 10: The Cell.

A social scientific discussion and comparison of some of the major political ideologies in the world today, beginning with an overview of the origins, meaning, and limitations of the 'left-right' political spectrum, and continuing with an analysis of the historical origin and key beliefs of conservatism, liberalism, socialism, communism, anarchism, fascism, and other nationalist movements.

Continuing from Episode 69, I explore the diversity of the mammals, looking at all the mammalian orders and their major families. Special focus is given to primates and particularly hominids, which are discussed at the species level.

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In this episode we explore the diversity of the animal kingdom. I first discuss the history of taxonomy and give an overview of some key concepts such as morphological similarity, phylogenetic analysis, systematics, cladistics, binomial classification, and the taxonomic hierarchy. Then follows an explanation of the diversity of and relationships between the major animal phyla, including arthropods, echinoderms, molluscs, and many others, with special emphasis is given to the classes and orders in the phylum of chordata (vertebrates).

An overview of the structure and function of proteins. Beginning with a discussion of some key research methods for studying proteins, including column chromatography, electrophoresis, and x-ray crystallography, we then discuss the structure of proteins, with a focus on secondary structure, motifs, structural domains, and quaternary structure. The episode concludes with a look at protein function, including protein folding, denaturation, enzymatic function, and allosteric regulation. Recommended pre-requisites are Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics, and Episode 10: The Cell. Episode 32: Light and Optics may also be helpful for the crystallography portion.

Concluding the brief exploration of language begun last time, this episode examines semantics, including the distinction between sense and reference and different types of utterances, pragmatics, including conversational maxims and implicatures, and sociolinguistics, including prestige dialects and speech acts. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 66: An Overview of Language Part 1.

In this first of a two-part episode, I discuss the phenomenon of language. Here we consider phonetics, how sounds are produced and articulated, phonology, how different sounds are distinguished from one another and treated across different languages, morphology, how sounds are combined into units of meaning called morphemes, and in turn how these are combined into words, and syntax, how words are put together in accordance with particular rules to form sentences.

An introduction to the concept of money, including its uses, purpose, and a brief account of its history. I discuss the notion of money as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, and a store of value, and some of the properties that make particular goods useful as money. I also discuss various measures of the money supply, and briefly outline the difference between the monetary base and money created through the fractional reserve system. I discuss inflation, including its definition, causes, and effects on the economy, before concluding with a brief look at interest rates and exchange rates.

A look at how we understand and think about semantic knowledge. I discuss semantic and propositional networks, the spreading activation model, present some evidence in favour of these models, and discuss the promising new approach of connectionism. I also examine how we classify objects into categories, looking at prototype and exemplar theories, family resemblance, graded membership, and the theory-theory of concepts.

An overview of the structure and function of the nervous system, including a discussion of the autonomic and somatic divisions of the peripheral nervous system, the spinal cord, and the brain. I discuss the major regions and structures of the brain, including the brainstem, the cerebellum, the cerebral cortex, and various subcortical structures. I conclude with some brief remarks about lateralization and the relationship between brain size and IQ.

An overview of organic chemistry, beginning with a discussion of the nature of organic compounds, the history of vitalism and its influence on the development of organic chemistry, and what makes carbon so special. I then discuss some important concepts in organic chemistry, including IUPAC nomenclature, functional groups, aromaticity, fullerenes, polymers, and organic synthesis. Recommended prelistening is Episode 15: Chemical Bonding, and Episode 23: Chemical Reactions.

A discussion of the basic concepts of magnetism, including magnetic fields, magnetic poles, and electromagnets. I also discuss the ultimate subatomic source of magnetic force in the phenomenon of electric spin, and explain how this leads to the different types of magnetic materials: ferromagnets, paramagnets, and diamagnets. I conclude with some applications of electromagnetism, including electric generators and motors, transformers, and a brief discussion of Maxwell's equations. Recommended prelistening is Episode 43: Electric Forces and Fields. 

An analysis of memory, including a discussion of the different types of memory, the capacity of short term memory, how environment and depth of processing influences learning and recall, the relationship between memory and familiarity, and different types of amnesia. Complements Episode 20: The Reliability of Memory.

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A analysis of the sense of smell, beginning with the nose, the olfactory epithelium and the different types of receptor proteins, and progressing through the processes of sensory transduction, transmission of neural signals to the olfactory bulb, and thence into the higher regions of the brain. I also discuss the sense of smell in humans compared to that of other animals, with a focus on the special abilities of bloodhounds. Recommended prerequisite is Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses.

A discussion of how our sense of taste works, including an overview of the basic anatomy of the tongue and relevant brain circuits, a discussion of taste buds and how they work, a review of the five basic tastes and how they differ, and a look at some other interesting topics such as pungency and aftertaste. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 10: The Cell and Episode 38: Neurons and Synapses.

We begin with a discussion of basic electrical phenomena such as current, voltage, resistance and power, before applying these ideas to the analysis of circuits, including series and parallel circuits. We then apply these concepts to understand a number of interesting phenomena, including light bulbs, lightning, and why electricity can be dangerous. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 43: Electric Forces and Fields.

A discussion of the notion of trade and exchange, including the purpose of these activities, the gains from trade, and the role of comparative advantage. I also examine some recent trends in global trade, and briefly discuss some of the major global trade institutions such as the WTO and World Bank and their role in attempting to reduce trade barriers. The episode concludes with a brief discussion of the concept of 'Buy Local'. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 12: The Price System.

Continuing on from the previous episode, I discuss some of the biological determinants of gender differences, including hormonal effects on interests and behaviour, and structural differences in the brain. I then examine a number of more specific topics pertinent to the issue of gender differences, including occupational segregation, women in science and technology, emotional differences, and differences in conversational form and topics.

In this first of our two part series on sex and gender, I discuss the scientific evidence regarding some of the major behavioral and social differences between men and women, and examine the degree to which these can be explained by differential socialization and bias and discrimination. I also discuss the treatment of women in the workplace and how gender stereotypes serve to inhibit female advancement into higher positions.

We begin with a discussion of the essential nature of sound as pressure waves in air, discussing matters such as the speed of sound, harmonic frequencies, loudness, standing waves, and the Doppler effect. We then apply these basic principles to understand the nature of music, and why different musical instruments sound different. Also discussed are the various aspects of music, including beat, pitch, melody, timbre, etc, and the differences between woodwind, percussion, brass, and string instruments. Recommended prelistening is Episode 24: Vibrations and Waves

We begin by discussing some of the basic principles of image formation in lenses and mirrors, including reflection in flat mirrors and curved mirrors, use of ray diagrams, real and virtual images, and the different ways in which images can be formed. These basic principles are then applied to gain an understanding of a number of interesting optical phenomena, including mirages, rainbows, and thin-film interference. I conclude the episode with a discussion of optical magnification, and how this is used in telescopes and microscopes.

A discussion of acids and basis, including a definition and description of the concepts of acidity and basicity, a look at the relationship between the concepts of strength, concentration, and corrosivity, a discussion of weak acids and acid-base equilibria, and an explanation of pH and how buffer solutions act to stabalise pH levels in solution.

In this special episode we examine a number of popular myths, misconceptions, and faulty understandings that are widely held about various scientific questions. Topics covered include misunderstandings about black holes, common misconceptions about genetics, physics mistakes perpetrated in films, popular myths about various animals, and a look at some of the misconceptions about psychology and the mind.

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A discussion of the effect of market outcomes on firm behavior, consumer welfare, and market outcomes. I examine perfect competition, monopoly, oligopoly, and monopolistic competition, comparing their outcomes and when each type of structure tends to occur. Also includes a discussion of cartels, when they form, and why they tend to fail. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 48: Theory of the Firm, Episode 16: Profits and Competition, and Episode 12: The Price System.

A discussion of the nature of the firm, the different types of firms, and the reasons for the existence of firms. This leads to an overview of the objectives of firms, including decisions regarding how to produce and the profit maximizing quantity to produce, and a discussion of the implications of this behavior for consumers and the economy at large. Recommended prelistening are Episode 12: The Price System and Episode 16: Profits and Competition.

In part 3 of our journey through the visual system, we discuss the structure and function of the Primary Visual Cortex, including an analysis of occular dominance columns, orientation columns, and the six cortical layers. I also cover higher cortical regions involved in visual processing, including the V2, V3, V4, and IT areas, and how these regions are divided into distinct 'what' and 'where' processing pathways.

Resuming from where we left off last time, we continue our journey through the visual system by explaining the structure and function of the bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, including their somewhat complex receptive fields. I then discuss the optic nerve and cross over of information from different visual hemifields at the optic chiasm. We end this part of our journey with a look at the lateral geniculate nucleus, and how it is structurally organised to process different types of visual information in different locations.

We commence our grand journey to understand the visual system by examining the eye, its anatomical structure and physiological properties. I discuss image formation in the eye, including an explanation of the role of the lens, iris, and cornea. I also explain the phototransduction, the fascinating molecular process by which photons falling on the retina are converted into neural signals that the brain can interpret. Recommended prelistening: Episode 18 - Biochemistry Basics, Episode 25 - Tissues, Organs and Systems, Episode 32 - Light and Optics, Episode 38 - Neurons and Synapses.

A discussion of the cell cycle and cell division, beginning with an overview of chromosomes and chromosome structure, and then proceeding through a detailed discussion of the G1, S, and G2 stages of interphase, and the prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis phases of M-phase. I conclude the episode with a discussion of cell-cycle regulation, including the role of cyclin-dependent kinases, cell checkpoints, and growth factors. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 10: The Cell, Episode 18: Biochemistry Basics, and Episodes 34 and 35: DNA Structure and Function.

An overview of the basics of electric charges, electric fields, and electric potential energy. I also discuss how objects become charged, how charged particles interact via Coulomb’s Law, how electroscopes work, and how batteries generate voltage. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 9: Matter and Molecules, and Episode 17: Energy, Work, and Momentum.

A discussion of the properties and behaviour of gases, focusing on the kinetic theory of gases and the ideal gas law. I also discuss the thermodynamic behaviours of gases, gas partial pressures, and PV diagrams. Recommended prerequisites are Episode 9: Matter and Molecules and Episode 13: Newtonian Mechanics.

A discussion of the behaviour of fluids, including an overview of the concepts of fluid pressure and Pascal’s Principle. I also discuss Archimedes’ principle of buoyancy and its application to why objects float, and Bernoulli’s Principle of the relationship between fluid speed and pressure, and how this can be applied (and misapplied) to explaining how aeroplanes fly. Recommended prerequisites: Episode 13 Newtonian Mechanics, Episode 27 Intermolecular Bonds and Phase Transitions.

A science-based discussion of the issue of gun control in the United States. After reviewing some basic statistics about crime and gun ownership, I examine the empirical evidence concerning the relationship between gun ownership and violent crime, highlighting the many difficulties associated with such studies and the limitations of this literature. I then discuss some more specific aspects of the gun control debate, including the question of who commits most violent crimes, how deadly guns are compared to other weapons, and how criminals acquire guns. I conclude with a discussion of the evidence for and against various types of gun control measures, and some thoughts on contemporary US gun culture and its impact on gun policy.

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An overview of the state as understood in political science, including a discussion of the meaning of terms like ‘state’, ‘country’ and ‘nation’, and a summary of some of the different types of states, including unitary, federal, and confederal. I also discuss some of the core principles of government in modern states, including sovereignty, the rule of law, separation of powers, and separation of church and state.

A discussion of the neuron, the fundamental cell of the brain and the nervous system, including an overview of its morphology and physiology. I also discuss the generation and propagation of action potentials, including the role of graded potentials, voltage-dependant ion channels, and myelination. The episode concludes with an overview of synapses and the important role of neurotransmitters.

An overview of oxidation, reduction, and redox reactions, including a discussion of the definitions of these basic concepts, and an explanation of how they relate to oxidation number and electronegativity. We then apply these concepts to several common examples of redox reactions, including combustion, rust, batteries, fuel cells, and respiration.

A discussion of the theory of consumer choice in economics, including an outline of consumer preferences and the axiomatic assumptions economists make about them, a discussion of the realism of these assumptions, and an explanation of how preferences are used to derive consumer utility functions and demand curves. These basic concepts are then applied to understand consumer behaviour in an analysis of substitution and income effects, complementary and substitute goods, and elasticity of demand. Recommended prerequisites include Episode 12: The Price System and Episode 16: Profits and Competition.

Continuing on from episode 34, I discuss in detail the processes of DNA replication, transcription from DNA to RNA, and the translation of RNA to proteins. In doing so I examine the molecules and structures involved, the mechanisms of their operation, and how all the processes work together to facilitate the production of proteins from DNA.

In part 1 of this two-part episode, I discuss the double helix shape of DNA, the structure of nucleotides, base-paring between nitrogenous bases, the genetic code, codons, DNA reading frames, the one-gene one-polypeptide hypothesis, and the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology. This basic structural knowledge will provide the basis for a more detailed discussion of the processes of DNA replication, transcription and translation in part 2 of this topic. Recommended background knowledge of episodes 10 (The Cell) and 18 (Biochemistry Basics).

A discussion of three of the most chilling experiments in the field of social psychology: the Ash Conformity Experiment, the Stanford Prison Experiment, and the Milgram Obedience Experiment. In each case I discuss the motivation and setup of the experiment, outline the results, discuss replications and variations of the original experiment, and end with a look at the implications of the experiment for understanding the darker side of human nature.

A discussion of the nature of light and its interactions with matter, including a journey through the history of our understanding of light from Newton’s corpuscular theory through early wave theory and up to the modern wave-particle duality understanding. Following this is an analysis of the various ways light interacts with matter, including absorption, reflection, transmission, refraction, dispersion, and transparency.

An analysis of liquids and their behaviour when mixed with other substances, incorporating a look at solutions, mixtures, colloids and suspensions. Special emphasis is placed on solutions, with a more detailed discussion of solubility, saturation, molarity and bubble formation.

An overview of the various forms of government that have existed throughout history and across the world, including a discussion of anarchy, democracy, monarchy, autocracy, and various forms of oligarchy, giving some key characteristics and important examples of each. Also includes an introduction to the principles of classification and political comparison.

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Continuing on from episode 28 on Classical Conditioning, in this episode I discuss another form of learning called Operant Conditioning, including the concepts of reinforcers, punishers, shaping, and schedules of reinforcement. I then apply Operant Conditioning theory to understand phenomena such as animal training and how punishments can be effectively used. The episode concludes with a brief look at a third form of learning, Observational Learning.

A discussion of classical conditioning, including an analysis of its key components of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and responses, the acquisition process, extinction, recovery, generalization, and discrimination. I also discuss some applications of classical conditioning to understand a wide variety of behaviors, including taste aversion, drug tolerance, sexual fetishes, and emotional responses.

An explanation of the forces and mechanisms of intermolecular bonding, including dispersion forces, dipole-dipole bonding and hydrogen bonds, with an application of these mechanisms in analysing surface tension. This is followed by a discussion of how phase transitions occur, focusing on evaporation, condensation, boiling and melting. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 15: Chemical Bonding.

A brief overview of all the human organ systems, including their major components and functions. Also includes an examination of how the organ systems work together to promote the proper functioning of the organism. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 25: Organs, Tissues and Systems.

An overview of the various levels of biological organisation, from the atomic and molecular level through cells, tissues, organs, and up to populations and ecosystems. Also includes a more detailed examination of the structure and function of the four main types of human tissue, including epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissues.

An overview of the basic principles of wave phenomena, including a definition of waves, a discussion of wave mediums, wavelength, frequency and amplitude. I also discuss a variety of interesting wave behaviours including interference, polarization, resonance, reflection, absorption, refraction, diffraction and standing waves. This episode will form the foundation for later discussion of sound and light.

An introduction to chemical reactions, including an overview of chemical equations, stoichiometry, thermochemistry, and reversible reactions. Also includes a discussion of collision theory to explain how and why chemical reactions occur.

A journey through Earth’s location in the universe, including a discussion of the Earth-moon system, the sun and planets of the solar system, nearby stars, the Milky Way Galaxy, the Local Group, clusters and superclusters, the large-scale structure of the universe, and speculations as to what may lie beyond.

An introduction to the basic concepts of biological evolution, including an overview of Charles Darwin’s contributions, a discussion of heredity, a summary of all the major evolutionary mechanisms, and a review of all the major lines of evidence supporting evolutionary theory.

An analysis of the various biases that effect the accuracy of human memory, including a discussion of spatial memory distortions, the impact of schema on memory, source monitoring failure, and the misinformation effect. I also discuss the interesting research regarding false memories, eyewitness memory, and flashbulb memories.

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An overview of biochemistry, covering the basic properties, structure and functions of nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates and proteins. Also includes a discussion of the nature of organic molecules and the importance of carbon in living organisms. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 15: Chemical Bonding.

A discussion of the principal circumstances in which markets do not produce an optimal outcome. After formally defining market failure, I discuss the ‘big four’ market failures of market power, externalities, public goods and asymmetric information. I conclude with a brief look at transaction costs. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 12: The Price System.

An overview of the basic concepts of linear momentum, angular momentum, work and energy. Includes a discussion of the conservation of momentum, why the concept is needed, and some applications of the concept to collisions and rotating objects. The nature of energy is also discussed, along with the different forms of energy, and how the concepts of energy and work are related.

A discussion of the importance of the profit motive and freedom of competition in the efficient operation of a market economy. Includes an overview of the uniformity of profit principle, and an examination of how competition serves as both an opportunity and a disciplining agent for entrepreneurs and firms, thus promoting useful innovations while weeding out bad ideas.

An overview of how atoms bond together to form different chemical substances, including a discussion of the tree main types of bonds (covalent, ionic and metallic), and the relationship of these bonding types to the concept of electronegativity. I also discuss the difference between polar and non-polar bonds, and conclude with some interesting applications of bonding theory to understanding the properties of materials.

An introduction to the key principles of quantum mechanics, beginning with an examination of the quantum-mechanical description of the behaviour of electrons around atomic nuclei. This is followed by an overview of some of the other major principles of quantum theory, including the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, the Pauli Exclusion Principle, quantum tunnelling and entanglement. The episode concludes with a discussion of alternative interpretations of these quantum phenomena. Recommended pre-listening is Episode 8: The Atom.

An introduction to basic Newtonian Physics, including a discussion of forces, velocity, acceleration, Newton’s three laws of motion, and some common misconceptions about forces. I also discuss circular motion, and conclude with a brief look at the physics of walking and driving a car.

An examination of how the price system works, including an introduction to supply and demand theory, and the concepts of clearing the market and surplus maximisation. We also look at how the price system promotes efficiency helps to regulate economic activity. Also includes a discussion of how prices store and communicate economic information.

An overview of the chaotic inflationary theory for the origin of the universe, including a discussion of the inflaton field, quantum fluctuations, spontaneous symmetry breaking, and the zero net energy of the universe. Also includes a discussion of the Multiverse and the fine-tuning paradox.

An overview of the structure and function of cells, as well as their discovery, size, and classifications. Organelles discussed include the nucleus, plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria. Also includes with a brief discussion of the unique properties of plant cells.

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An introduction to the nature, phases, and atomic composition of matter, along with a look at elements, ions, isotopes and the periodic table. The episode concludes with an explanation of molecules, including elemental, ionic and macromolecules.

An examination of the atom, beginning with the origin of the concept in ancient Greece, and its subsequent development as a truly scientific idea in the 19th century. I explain the various important contributions made to the field by Thomson, Rutherford, Planck, Einstein and de Broglie, and the resultant evolution of our models of the atom.

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A look into the fascinating psychological phenomenon of the introspection illusion. We explore the research behind this phenomenon, and the many implications that it has for human behaviour, including such startling conclusions as people are much more biased, much less observant and much more malleable than they think.

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An introduction to the principles of thermodynamics, including a look at temperature and heat, the laws of thermodynamics, perpetual motion, methods of transferring energy, and the phenomenon of entropy.

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An overview of current theories about how life arose from non-living matter, including an overview of the conditions on early earth, definitions of life, the source of organic monomers, the mechanisms of polymerisation of these monomers, and the possible means by which the first proto-cell developed.

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An examination of the perceived advantages of organic food in terms of safety, nutrition and taste, followed by a comparison of the costs and yield efficiencies of conventional versus organic farming techniques.

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A discussion of the history of organic agriculture, the philosophy behind it, and the main methods used. Also includes a look at the environmental benefits of organic farming, including the effects on erosion, water pollution and biodiversity.

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A discussion of gravity, beginning with a history of the concept from the ancient Greeks though to Newton. Also includes an explain Newton’s universal law of gravitation, how orbits work, how astronauts experience gravity in space, and how gravity causes the tides.

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